@article{oai:nagoya.repo.nii.ac.jp:02001518,
 author = {Hayakawa, Hisashi and Hattori, Kentaro and Pevtsov, Alexei A. and Ebihara, Yusuke and Shea, Margaret A. and McCracken, Ken G. and Daglis, Ioannis A. and Bhaskar, Ankush T. and Ribeiro, Paulo and Knipp, Delores J.},
 issue = {2},
 journal = {The Astrophysical Journal},
 month = {Mar},
 note = {Major solar eruptions occasionally direct interplanetary coronal mass ejections (ICMEs) to Earth and cause significant geomagnetic storms and low-latitude aurorae. While individual extreme storms are significant threats to modern civilization, storms occasionally appear in sequence, acting synergistically, and cause "perfect storms" on Earth. The stormy interval in 1938 January was one of such cases. Here, we analyze the contemporary records to reveal its time series on their source active regions, solar eruptions, ICMEs, geomagnetic storms, low-latitude aurorae, and cosmic-ray (CR) variations. Geomagnetic records show that three storms occurred successively on January 17/18 (Dcx ≈ −171 nT), January 21/22 (Dcx ≈ −328 nT), and January 25/26 (Dcx ≈ −336 nT). The amplitudes of the CR variations and storm sudden commencements (SSCs) show the impact of the first ICME as the largest (≈6% decrease in CR and 72 nT in SSC) and the ICMEs associated with the storms that followed as more moderate (≈3% decrease in CR and 63 nT in SSC; ≈2% decrease in CR and 63 nT in SSC). Interestingly, a significant solar proton event occurred on January 16/17 and the Cheltenham ionization chamber showed a possible ground-level enhancement. During the first storm, aurorae were less visible at midlatitudes, whereas, during the second and third storms, the equatorward boundaries of the auroral oval were extended down to 40.3° and 40.0° in invariant latitude. This contrast shows that the initial ICME was probably faster, with a higher total magnitude but a smaller southward component.},
 title = {The Intensity and Evolution of the Extreme Solar and Geomagnetic Storms in 1938 January},
 volume = {909},
 year = {2021}
}