@article{oai:nagoya.repo.nii.ac.jp:00008530,
 author = {Ohka, Masahiro and Mitsuya, Yasunaga and Higashioka, Isamu and Kabeshita, Hisanori},
 issue = {4},
 journal = {Robotica},
 month = {Jul},
 note = {This paper describes a micro-optical three-axis tactile sensor capable of sensing not only normal force, but also shearing force. The normal force was detected from the integrated gray-scale values of bright pixels emitted from the contact area of conical feelers. The conical feelers were formed on a rubber sheet surface that maintains contact with an optical waveguide plate. The shearing force was detected from horizontal displacement of the conical feeler. In the experiments, a precise multi-axial loading machine was developed to measure sensing characteristics of the present sensor. Results show that the normal force was specified uniquely under combined force conditions and that the shearing force was specified by modifying the relationship between the shearing force and the horizontal displacement on the basis of normal force. We formulated a set of expressions to derive the normal force and the shearing force by taking into account this modification. Furthermore, calibration coefficients were identified for transforming the integration of gray-scale values into the normal force and for transforming the horizontal displacement into the shearing force. This result suggests that the expressions can estimate the normal force and the shearing force in wide-load regions.},
 pages = {457--465},
 title = {An Experimental Optical Three-axis Tactile Sensor for Micro-Robots},
 volume = {23},
 year = {2005}
}